The myth of the birth of Athena was not just an engaging and extraordinary fragment of Greek mythology. It was also an effective strategy of the Mycenaean to prevail over the older matriarchal culture of the native Minoans in Crete, resulting to a distinctly patriarchal* system . To think of Athena as instrumental in ushering in a patriarchal and even misogynistic society is difficult to comprehend. Athena, after all, is the classic image of a strong woman. She is the goddess of wisdom, as well as the goddess of war. She should be the champion of feminists. But a deeper investigation of the myth of her birth reveals that Athena was an effective figurative weapon wielded by the conquering Mycenaeans to completely overcome the Minoans.

The intriguing matriarchal culture of Minoans

At the zenith of ancient Greek civilization, only an insignificant number of Minoans clung to their original matriarchal culture. Homer, in his epic poem Odysseus, referred to these stubborn Minoans as the “brave Eteocretans,”** people who speak a barbaric language. The fact that the original inhabitants of Crete, the Minoans, had been labeled as barbarians is not just ironic. It is the tragic result of a well-calculated scheme of misogynistic peoples. And it should raise suspicions about the famed culture of ancient Greece and her extensive mythology.

A quick review of history will provide a good perspective about the myth of Athena’s birth. Based on the works of several Greek poets, the existence of heroes such as Achilles, Odysseus, and Agamemnon was placed during the Mycenaean civilization, between 1900 and 1100 BCE. In fact, the mythical Trojan War supposedly happened in 1250 BCE. This theory is plausible because the Mycenaeans were known for their militaristic culture. There are several kingdoms, such as Mycenae, Thebes, Tiryns, and Athens that are intermittently at war with each other. To protect the kingdoms, the Mycenaean constructed sophisticated bridges, fortified walls, and temples***.

The remains of these structures continued to impress modern engineers. But the remains of the earlier Bronze Age civilization, the Minoans, were even more impressive. The ruins at Knossos, which were excavated in 1900 by Arthur Evans, an English archaeologist, showed that the noble class of Minoans lived in palace-like communal dwellings****. The frescoes and the architecture suggested an advanced knowledge in engineering, but the Minoans appeared to have no sophisticated weaponry. And one of the most surprising discoveries of all is that women in Minoan art are shown as actively participating in violent sports, such as boxing and bull jumping. Minoan women are also involved in government administration and in economic trade.

Intrigued by the seemingly equal treatment of men and women in ancient Minoan civilization, historians and archaeologists attempted to decipher their ancient language that is inscribed on clay tablets. The inscriptions are simply called Linear A text. Investigations revealed that although kings ruled Minoans, the lineage of rulers is based on the queens’ families. That is, the next king will be the spouse of the present king’s daughter*****. The Minoan culture is matriarchal and influenced by goddesses.

Transition from Minoans to Mycenaeans

The matrilineal orientation of Minoans is in stark contrast with that of the invading Mycenaeans, who believed there were too many Minoan goddesses, such as Pasiphae, Europa, and Atanapotinija. The last one, Atanapotinija, translates into Mistress Athena. She is a sun goddess that was worshipped by the people from North Africa who came to Crete in 4,000 BC****** . Instead of forbidding the worship of goddesses, the Mycenaeans wisely adopted the Minoan culture and slowly transformed it to suit the patriarchal society. Atanapotinija was given a family background. She acquired a father named Zeus.

The intriguing birth of Athena

According to the Mycenaean myth, Zeus consorted with a female Titan named Metis. She is a goddess of knowledge and wisdom. But Zeus learned of a prophecy that Metis, after giving birth to a girl, would give birth to a boy who is destined to defeat Zeus. With his experience of dethroning his own father still fresh on his mind, Zeus would do anything to prevent the prophecy. Metis must not have a child. And so Zeus wielded his godly power and swallowed Metis. But he forgot to consider the possibility that Metis might already be pregnant. In fact, Metis was pregnant when her traitorous consort suddenly gobbled her up. Inside of Zeus, Metis continued to nourish Athena.

When Athena is ready, Zeus began to suffer excruciatingly painful headaches. One of Zeus’ sons, Hermes the messenger god, had enough insight to realize that the source of Zeus’ headaches can be removed if his head is opened. Another son, Hephaestus, the armorer of gods, took a wedge and opened Zeus’ skull. Suddenly, a full-grown woman, shouting a war cry, sprang out. She is fully armored and carried an aegis, which is a special shield that is shared only with Zeus. As time passed by, the myth of Athena’s birth was shortened.

The patriarchal Mycenaeans and their influence on Athena

Today, Athena is known as the goddess of wisdom and war. She is also the favorite daughter of Zeus, the supreme Olympian god. The part of the myth that Metis, a powerful Titan, nurtured Athena is often omitted. Some people would assume that Athena was born without a mother. How would this affect the matrilineal Minoan culture that is struggling against the more militarily powerful patriarchal Mycenaeans?

The fact that Athena is a powerful goddess of war should appease the Minoans who worshipped and held goddesses in the highest regard. But Athena is still beholden to her father, Zeus. On the other hand, Zeus’ authority is never endangered by Athena’s gender******* . After all, unlike her sisters Aphrodite, Irene, and the muses, Athena never really showed feminine attributes. She didn’t have a consort. And it was Zeus who bestowed powers on Athena.

Notes:

*Harrison, Jane Ellen. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. London. Merlin Press, 1980.

**Homer. Odysseus. Trans. Samuel Butler. Orange Street Press Classics, 1998. 235

***Hemingway, Colette and Sean Hemingway. “Mycenaean Civilization”. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. October 2003. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/myce/hd_myce.htm

****Bourbon, Fabio. Lost Civilizations. New York. Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1998. 30-35
Hooker, Richard. “Women in Minoan Culture”. The Minoans. Washington State University. 1996. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MINOA/WOMEN.HTM

******Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths. New York. Penguin Non Classics, 1993. 8

*******Powers, Meredith. The Heroine in Western Literature: The Archetype and her Reemergence in Modern Prose. Jefferson, NC. McFarland & Company, 2000.

King Odysseus’s journey home

King Odysseus’s journey was protracted because, on his way home, he has to deal with the whims and caprices of gods and goddesses. The blind Homer, unlike other poets, tends to make it obvious to his listeners that the gods and goddesses possess distinctly human attributes, and that these deities give in to these mortal propensities, including jealousy, insecurity, and greed. In no other literature about Greek mythology are the Olympian deities portrayed with less godly and more humane characteristics than in Homer’s Odyssey. Thus, the Odyssey is not just a king’s adventurous journey towards home, but also a victorious struggle against a multitude of adversities.

Odysseus: his strengths and downfalls

The major protagonist of this epic Homeric poem is Odysseus, the king of Ithaca. He was one of the wise leaders of the Greek army that defeated Troy in a ten-year war. After the war, his only goal was to come back home where his queen, Penelope, faithfully waited for his return.

But Odysseus was not an ordinary king. He is a hero. Not only is he brave, but he is also daring. Not only is he intelligent, but he is quite creative. Not only is he physically strong but also skillfully athletic. Besides all these enviable traits, Odysseus is also known for his patience.

With these positive characteristics stacked up in his favor, his journey home should have been easy. But Odysseus suffers from one fatal flaw: his pride. It was Odysseus’ pride that angered gods. And this launched a series of events that made his journey arduous but also adventurous. Today, any journey that is anticipated to be arduous but also adventurous is better described as an odyssey.

The underlying conflict of the Odyssey

Homer’s Odyssey began with the conflict already well on its way. It is a strategy that literary experts describe as “in medias res” or, literally, “in the middle of things.” The return journey of King Odysseus was already thwarted and, apparently, during the ten-year journey, Odysseus spent seven years trapped on Calypso’s island.
Athena, the goddess of war and the favorite goddess of Odysseus, is already demanding his release from the island. With Athena’s discussion with her father, Zeus, and with other gods and goddesses, Homer provides a quick look of the world of deities in Mount Olympus and reveals that gods have human-like failings.

The situation in Odysseus’ home kingdom

Meanwhile, in Ithaca, Odysseus’s long absence has been taken as a sign that he is dead, and suitors who wanted to marry his wife, Penelope, now beleaguer Odysseus’ mansion. Odysseus’ son, Telemachus, interpreting the attack of eagles against the suitors as a sign from Zeus that Odysseus is alive, sets out to find out what happened to his father. He ended up seeing Menelaus, another Greek king involved in the Trojan War. Telemachus learned that half of the Greek army, including Odysseus’ contingent, stayed in Troy after the war to appease Athena’s wrath. Then, when the last of the Greeks finally sailed home, Odysseus became imprisoned on an island owned by a nymph named Calypso.

The debate between the gods regarding Odysseus’ fate

After Athena convinced Zeus to let go of Odysseus, the king of the gods sends a message to Calypso to free Odysseus. Calypso reluctantly conceded, but Odysseus’ difficulties did not end with his escape from the island. Odysseus has also incurred the wrath of Poseidon. The god of the sea sent a storm that nearly killed Odysseus. But the enterprising Greek king managed to get on island where Princess Nausicaa rescued him and took him to the king’s palace. In the palace, Odysseus was the honored guest of a banquet that also features an athletic competition and a bard who sings to entertain. In the competition, Odysseus showed his skill with the discus. And when the bard sang the story of the Trojan War, Odysseus broke down and began to tell his own story.

The real story behind Odysseus’ adventure

Odysseus’ adventures as he and his crew set sail from Troy became the origins of today’s legends. First, three of his men tasted the Lotus, a strange plant that eradicates a human’s desire to go home. Second, they encountered gigantic one-eyed herdsmen who are better known as Cyclops. One by one, the Cyclops ate Odysseus’ men. To escape, Odysseus and his men had the ingenuity to fool one of the Cyclopses and then gouge out the Cyclops’ eye. It was a clever plan on the part of Odysseus, but it also turned out to be one of his greatest errors because the giants were the sons of Poseidon. This is why the god of the sea didn’t want Odysseus to live and made the sea turn against him.

A friendly being, the Keeper of the Winds, took pity on Odysseus and sent a helpful breeze. But Odysseus’ men, greedy for treasures, opened a leather bag given by the Keeper of the Winds. A hurricane was released from the bag and Odysseus and his men were blown back to the island of giants, who quickly gobbled up many of Odysseus’ men. The surviving crew found themselves enchanted by the Circe the enchantress, and they were unsurprisingly turned into swine.

Odysseus, with the secret help of Hermes, the messenger god, avoided the fate of his men. Going back to his ship where only a few of his men were left, Odysseus once again tried to sail home. They passed the Sirens, who are known to lure sailors with their sweet voices. Curious to hear the sirens’ songs, but not to fall temptation to doom, Odysseus placed wax on the ears of his crew but had himself tied to the mast. Once safe from the sirens, the crew celebrated and sacrificed Zeus’ cattle. This angered the king of the gods. Zeus sent a thunderbolt that destroyed the ship. Only Odysseus survived, and he found himself trapped on Calypso’s island.

The journey after the story

Enthralled by the story, the king of the palace helped Odysseus to sail to Ithaca. Athena guided Odysseus all the way back to his home. But there was still the matter of suitors who have overrun his mansion. Thus, with the help of the goddess, Odysseus disguised himself as an old man and stayed with Eumaeus, the faithful servant of Odysseus. Meanwhile, Athena also assisted Telemachus to plan a way to escape an ambush prepared by the suitors and to reach the Eumaeus’ farm and meet his father.

Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus goes back to his mansion where the suitors, who had been living off Odysseus’ wealth, maltreated him. Penelope, however, was kind to him because she is naturally kind to strangers. For many years, Penelope has been holding off the request of the suitors to choose a new king. She told them that she would choose a new husband when she finished knitting her gown. During the day, she knits in front of the suitors. But at night, she disentangles her work. Then, one day, her gown is finished and she had one more test for the suitors. The test is to shoot one arrow through all the sockets of twelve lined up ax heads. It was a feat that only Odysseus can accomplish. Still disguised as a beggar, Odysseus sent an arrow through the sockets. It was a sign for Telemachus to rid the mansion of the pesky suitors. Odysseus’ identity is revealed, and Athena helped in demolishing the suitors and the mansion is saved.

Penelope, however, is still doubtful of the man who claims to be Odysseus. She replaces Odysseus’ bed with a different one. Odysseus immediately noticed the difference. After all, it was him who crafted the bed. Penelope was finally convinced, and you can say, that they live happily ever after by Homer’s accord.

Reference:

Homer. Odysseus. Trans. Samuel Butler. Orange Street Press Classics, 1998.

Back to Ancient Greek Literature

Prometheus: the father of man?

There are numerous literary works that tell about Prometheus and his role in the creation of Man. The earliest one was Theogony, the 800 BC epic poem of Hesiod in which Prometheus was portrayed as a lowly Titan who tricked Zeus into giving man the gift of fire. The most extensive one was in the Protagoras dialogue in which Plato described how Zeus gave Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus the task of creating animals and humans. Apparently, Epimetheus used all attributes, such as wings, scales, and talons, on animals and had nothing left for man. Thus, Prometheus gave humans the appearance of the gods.

However, men did not have the powers that gods possessed. The only way to empower the mortals was to give them fire. Prometheus asked Zeus to give the men fire, but the Olympian god refused. Thus, one night when the gods were sleeping, Prometheus stole fire from Mount Olympus and brought fire to men. Prometheus’ motives for giving fire to men might have come from pity for the helpless mortals, but it could also stem from his anger at Zeus who exiled his family, the other Titans, to Tartarus. At the same time, Prometheus wanted to make sure that Zeus’ expected anger would be appeased. Thus, Prometheus instructed the mortals to regularly make animal sacrifices to Zeus.

Zeus’ punishment against Prometheus

The discovery of men using fire did not please Zeus, and Prometheus was sentenced to an eternal punishment. Prometheus would be chained to a rock, and an eagle swooped down to eat his liver during the day. At night, the liver would grow back, and the torture of having it eaten during the day was repeated. This punishment seems to exceed the gravity of Prometheus’ folly, especially when Prometheus fought against the other enemies of Zeus. But no one can really question nor challenge the wrath of gods.

The relationship between Prometheus and man

Two centuries later, another talented poet, Aeschylus, wrote a more engaging story about Prometheus and his relationship with man. In Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus reveals why Zeus gave such a harsh punishment for Prometheus. Aeschylus’ story revealed that Prometheus did not just steal fire. Prometheus enabled men to be independent and creative thinkers. He gave men the knowledge of mathematics, writing, agriculture, science, and medicine. This allowed men to survive, despite the illogical whims of gods. Zeus, like his father Cronus, had the propensity to destroy races of men. Before Prometheus intervened to help mankind, Zeus has previously destroyed five races of men. Thus, it was Prometheus’ kindness to men and rebellion against Zeus that prevented another complete destruction of a human race. Zeus’ power in destroying creatures on Earth was considerably reduced. And for this, Prometheus is punished.

The fate of Prometheus

Despite being bound to a rock by an unbreakable chain, Prometheus remained unrepentant for his actions. And despite being tortured every day by the liver-eating eagle, Prometheus never became helpless. In fact, Prometheus knew the downfall of Zeus. That is, he knew that one of Zeus’ sons would have enough strength, intelligence, and power to overthrow the king of the Olympians.

Zeus wanted to know which son was planning to usurp his power. Zeus offered to free Prometheus if he would simply reveal the name of the son. Prometheus refused, and this further infuriated Zeus. The Olympian god then declared that the only way to free Prometheus is to have another immortal die for him, while a mortal would need to kill the terrible eagle and break the chain (Fisher, 1984).

An immortal eventually died for Prometheus. The immortal was Chiron, a centaur. Centaurs are creatures that have the upper torso of a man and the body of a horse. Centaurs are usually savages, and because of their wild nature, they rushed to a jar of wine opened for Heracles, the exiled son of Zeus and Alcmene, a beautiful mortal woman. Heracles fought the centaurs, and in the process, accidentally wounded Chiron, who did not join in the fight.

However, Chiron was unlike other centaurs because he possessed wisdom and kindness. He taught Greek heroes such as Achilles. But the demigod Heracles wounded him. Since centaurs are immortal, Chiron faced an eternity of enduring excruciating pain. Thus, he and Heracles went to Caucasus, where Prometheus was bound. Chiron died for Prometheus, while Heracles killed the eagle and broke the chain (Ferguson, 2000). In the meantime, the sacrifices of men eventually appeased Zeus. Today, Prometheus is the icon for any rebellion against injustice.

References:

Aeschylus. (1961). “Prometheus Bound”. Prometheus Bound and Other Plays. (Philip Vellacott, Trans.) New York: Penguin Classics. (Original work published 400 B.C.)

Ferguson, Diana (2000). Greek Myths and Legends, Collins and Brown, New York, New York.Fisher, Leonard (1984). The Olympians, Great Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Greece, Holiday House, New York, New York.

Hesiod. Theogony. (1987). (Richard S Caldwell, Trans.) Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Co. (Original work published about 800 B.C.)

Plato. Protagoras. (2006). (Adam Beresford, Trans.) New York: Penguin Classics. (Original work published about 420 B.C.)

Back to Ancient Greek Myths

The different versions of creation

For example, in Plato’s Protagoras, the Olympian gods created men and other creatures on earth. Two Titans, Prometheus and Epimetheus, were then tasked to provide each creature with a unique attribute. The pair started with animals and gave attributes, such as the ability to fly with wings and the protection of scales. And when at last the two Titans turn to man, they ran out of attributes. Thus, Prometheus wisely made man in the likeness of the gods.

In a different story, Hesiod’s Theogony, it was Prometheus and Epimetheus who created men and all the creatures on Earth. Zeus gave the Titans this task because Zeus was bored with the world. Epimetheus was assigned to give attributes to the creatures, while Prometheus fashioned them using mud. When mud-man was finally molded, Epimetheus no longer had any attribute to give. Thus, Prometheus gave the mud-man a little of each creature’s attribute. That is, man will have the cunning of the monkey, the swiftness of birds, and the courage of the lion. According to Ovid, Prometheus also used a special mud. It was the combination of water from the newly formed streams and the soil of earth that still bore heavenly life. Thus, it became easy for Athena, the goddess of wisdom to breathe divine spirit into the mud-man.

The inherent self-destruction of man through different races

However, it was unfortunate that Zeus allowed the race of men to destroy themselves. According to Hesiod, the first race of man, who was created in the Age of Gold, were perfect mortals who lived in peace, happiness, and harmony. But they were mortals and they eventually died.

The second race of men was created in the Age of Silver. The men were proud and refused to pay homage to the gods. As punishment, Zeus banished them below the earth.

The third race, which was created in the Age of Bronze, was composed of natural warriors who eventually annihilated each other.

The fourth race was formed in the Age of Heroes. They also fought, and the bloodiest wars were the Trojan and Theban wars. Some of these men, such as Hector and Achilles, became heroes, but the whole race of men disappeared and their stories became legends.

The fifth race of men was created in the Age of Iron. Each man created in this age is a mix of good and evil. The evil component automatically cursed the race.In the Age of Bronze, when Prometheus molded the new mud-man, he had the strong desire to make the new race live and survive. But without god-like powers, the mortals could never live long, unless they possessed an element that belonged to the gods.

The godly gift to humans

Prometheus formed the idea of giving fire to men. He convinced Zeus to provide the mortals with fire. Zeus liked the idea of having the mortals use fire to offer him sacrifices of animal meat. But, despite the sacrifices, Zeus still considered the idea of purging the earth once again and replacing the present race of men. To thwart this, Prometheus planned on playing a trick on Zeus. He instructed the mortals to make two piles of sacrifices and asked Zeus to choose one pile. The first pile contained good meat that was wrapped in an unsightly hide. And the second pile contained bones, but was covered by very palatable fat. Zeus was greedy and immediately chose the second pile. This revealed to men that Zeus was not as wise as they thought.

However, there was no doubt about the power of Zeus’ anger when he discovered the trick. Zeus took away the fire from the mortals. But one night, when the gods were sleeping, Prometheus managed to steal fire from Mount Olympus and gave the fire to men. This time, Zeus anger was even greater. The Olympian god sent his two servants, Force and Violence, to find and capture Prometheus. The Titan managed to avoid these servants long enough to teach men knowledge about agriculture, science, medicine, mathematics, and arts.

Prometheus also collected as much evil as he could and trapped the evils in an urn. He gave the urn to his brother, Epimetheus, for safekeeping before he was finally captured and chained to a rock in Caucasus. Unable to move and defend his body, Prometheus’ liver is easily eaten by a terribly large eagle. The liver would grow every night and every day, the eagle would return. This was the eternal punishment given to Prometheus.

The punishment Zeus bestowed upon manAgainst men, Zeus planned a different kind of punishment. He ordered Hephaestus, the god of smiths, to create a woman of incredible beauty. The other gods endowed the woman with many gifts. The woman’s name was Pandora, and Zeus gave her to Epimetheus, who lived with men. Unlike Prometheus, Epimetheus is not wise. He did not heed his brother’s warning against accepting gifts from Zeus. And Pandora easily tricked him to give her the urn from Prometheus.

Curious, Pandora opened the urn. Greed, dishonestly, envy, vanity, and all other evils were released back into the world. The last item inside the urn was hope. It was the only solace for men, but it was not enough. Earth became a miserable place.

To help mankind, one Arcadian king, named Lycaon, sacrificed his own son to Zeus. Appalled, the Olympian god finally sent a flood to destroy the race of men. But Deucalion, the son of Prometheus, escaped with his wife Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus, and they saved human kind. After surviving the flood, the couple, without malice or resentment, gave offerings to Zeus. The Olympian god was pleased and was willing to grant them any wish. The couple wished for people. Zeus instructed them to throw stones on the soil of the earth. The stones that Deucalion threw transformed into men and the stones that Pyrrha threw turned into women. Thus, mortals populated the earth again.

References:

• Fisher, L. (1984). The Olympians, Great Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Greece. New York: Holiday House.

• Hesiod. Theogony. (1987). (Richard S Caldwell, Trans.) Newburyport, MA: Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Co. (Original work published about 800 B.C.)

• Ovid. Metamorphoses. (1922). (Brookes More, Trans). Boston: Cornhill Publishing Co. (Original work published about 43 B.C. to 18 A.D.)

• Plato. Protagoras. (2006). (Adam Beresford, Trans.) New York: Penguin Classics. (Original work published about 400 to 420 B.C.)

Back to Ancient Greek Myths

Kid Icarus

When video games first started becoming readily available and popular in the United States, some of the first games were based on mythological Greek stories or characters. In 1986, Nintendo released a game called Kid Icarus on the Famicom system. A year later it was released on the critically acclaimed Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). In Greek mythology, Icarus was the son of Daedalus, famous for unsuccessfully attempting to escape the island of Crete by flight. Ignoring his father’s advice and flying too high, the sun melted the wax wings his father had made him and he fell to his death. In the game, the main character “Pit” is loosely based on Icarus as well as Eros (Cupid, in Roman mythology). Pit is an angel assigned by Palutena, the Goddess of Light, to help her defeat Medusa, the Goddess of Darkness and her minions. After Palutena attempts to banish Medusa to the Underworld because of her hatred for mortals, Medusa declares war and the Palace in the Sky is in jeopardy. In 2003, IGN (International Gaming Network) declared Kid Icarus as #84 among the Top 100 Games of All Time.

God of War

Several years later in 2005, after video games had become drastically more sophisticated and advanced, Sony Computer Entertainment released God of War for the PlayStation 2 console. The protagonist of the game, Kratos, is purely fictional. However, much of the game’s design and storyline borrow from Greek history and Greek mythology. According to the story of the game, Kratos was a young Spartan captain, who devoted his life to doing the bidding of Ares, the son of Zeus, in exchange for saving his and his comrades’ lives during an intense battle they would have otherwise lost. Ares granted Kratos great power and bound his arms with long chains and swords. Ares then tricked Kratos into infiltrating and massacring an entire village that worshipped the Goddess of Heroic Endeavor, Athena. After the brutal attack, Kratos realized that in his frenzy he had killed his own wife and daughter. This was all according to Areas’ master plan to turn Kratos into a brutal killing machine. He then denounces Ares, and throughout the game seeks the guidance of several other mythological Greek gods and seeks his redemption.

Since the incredible success of the first God of War game, two sequels have been released as well as one mobile game based on the series, along with one prequel game for the PlayStation Portable. All of the God of War video games feature notable characters from Greek mythology.

Some other notable video games inspired by Greek mythology include:

• Heroes of Might and Magic (Series from ’95-present)

• The Battle of Olympus (1988, NES)

• Hercules Action Game (1997, PlayStation, PC)

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For instance, many medical terms borrow from Greek mythology. The drug morphine borrows its name from Morpheus, the Greek God of Slumber. Similarly, the term “aphrodisiac”, which refers to something that arouses desire, comes from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, lust, beauty and fertility.

Often times, when someone has a weakness it is referred to as their “Achilles’ heel” or “Achilles’ tendon”. In Greek mythology, Achilles was a Greek Hero of the Trojan War, who was said to have a body that was completely impervious to attack, except for his heel. In Greek mythology, Achilles was said to have been mortally wounded by an arrow that struck his heel.

The influence of Greek mythology on modern language has even become evident in the computer age. A very common type of computer virus is known as a “Trojan”, as a reference to the Trojan horse built by the Greek that was used to infiltrate Troy and subsequently ended the Trojan War. This virus functions similarly to the Trojan horse of Greek mythology, by disguising itself as something else and then attacking or compromising system resources.

Perhaps you’ve heard of a popular auto maintenance company called Midas? They’re official slogan “Trust the Midas touch” borrows from the mythological King Midas, who was said to have a touch that would turn anything into gold. The expression “the Midas touch” is commonly used to refer to someone that is consistently successful with whatever they attempt, particularly in terms of business.

The examples certainly don’t stop there. There are many common English words, phrases, figures of speech and even proverbs that borrow from Greek mythology. Ever heard of Pandora’s Box? Stuck between a rock and a hard place? What about a beautiful woman said to have a “face that launched a thousand ships”? As you further explore the vast world of Greek mythology, you’re likely to discover some familiar (and some not-so-familiar) terms that you otherwise might have never known the origin of.

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Several skeptics, including renowned classics scholar Martin West, maintain that Homer is not a historical poet, but rather a fictitious character. West believes that Homer’s works were actually collective works of several poets. However, British classical scholar Geoffrey Kirk has stated that he believes both works can be attributed to one very talented individual, who used various traditional stories as inspiration for his writings.

The era of Homer is a subject of much debate, and has been that way for hundreds of years. It is unclear exactly when the man or the fictitious character came to be. Among contemporary scholars, “the date of Homer” generally refers to the time the poems were created as well as the lifetime of Homer the individual. According to Greek historian Herodotus, Homer predated him by about 400 years, which would mean Homer’s lifetime was somewhere around 850 BC. However, even older sources suggest that the date of Homer may very well date as far back as the Trojan War (roughly around the 12th century BC). Modern scholars place the date of Homer somewhere between the end of the 9th century BC and the 8th. The Iliad is generally believed to have come before the Odyssey, making it the oldest known work of western literature.

During the period of late antiquity, which falls on the timeline near the end of classical antiquity and before the Middle Ages, the popularity of the Greek language greatly declined in Western Europe, which was dominated by Latin speakers. Because of this, Homer’s poems began to fade into obscurity. It wasn’t until the 15th century in Italy that Homer’s works once again began to receive recognition. The first known edition came to be in 1488.

Homer’s works are currently studied by historical and literary scholars worldwide. They are also credited for having a substantial impact on Greek history as well as culture. When studying Greek mythology, it is almost impossible to avoid a citing from one of Homer’s epic works.

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Were the Olympics created to showcase warrior skills?

There are many myths and theories surrounding the origin of the ancient Olympic Games and why they were created. One theory, which is quite a popular one, is that Greeks were warriors by trade, and once their domination of land was largely secured, the need for war and battle was no longer necessary. To exercise these physical needs, which no longer had a natural outlet, the ancient Greek city-states started building gymnasiums, stadiums and training centers.

Continuing the tradition of physical excellence

The physical aesthetic of strength and a muscular build continued because this was the physical manifestation of warriors, and warriors were revered. Since warriors essentially no longer had a job, and their work no longer defined their status, the physical power of a warrior became the new aesthetic – and this was one that could be achieved by almost anyone with enough dedication and effort.

And now, since there were no wars to fight, games were created as a place for men to demonstrate their physical strength, prowess, and skill. These competitions were open to anyone who could afford the training, and each Greek city-state would elect a representative to send to compete. This was an incredible honor as it gave the chosen participant the opportunity to bring attention to his hometown.

Was Hercules responsible for the Olympics?

The most popular myth as to the origin of the ancient Olympic Games is that Heracles was the creator of the games. He built the first Olympic stadium to honor his father, Zeus, after Heracles completed a trying assignment of 12 labors. According to legend, Heracles walked in a straight line for 400 strides and declared this distance a “stadium” or “stage.” This is why the modern stadium is the distance of 400 meters in circumference.

The synthesis of religion and the Olympics

The Olympic Games quickly became a nationally important contest, reaching their height of popularity on the 5th and 6th centuries BC. As is the case with most of Greek life, the Olympics became a fundamentally religious declaration of importance, a way of honoring the gods, as well as the abundance of good life that the Greeks owed to these deities.

The number of games and events grew from just a few to twenty at their height of popularity, and the contests and celebrations were spread over several days. The winners of each event were highly regarded, awarded prizes, and immortalized in poems and statues.

The Olympic Games gradually declined in importance as the Romans gained power in Greece and eventually brought to a halt after the final games in 393AD. The International Olympic Committee was founded in 1894, and the first modern Olympic Games were revived and held in 1896 in Athens, Greece.

Participation in the Olympic Games is still an incredible honor, bringing recognition to an athlete’s home nation, and participation has grown to include almost every country from around the world. The original Olympic Games were held every four years, and that is a tradition that continues through today’s modern Olympic Games.

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The art of Ancient Greece is universally recognized as being divided into four periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. However, in reality, there is no sharp difference marking the transition of one period to another. Instead, the styles blend and merge, together creating an aesthetic that is understood and widely recognized as one artistic movement.

Inspired by religion and mythology

Life in ancient Greece was heavily dominated by religion, influenced by mythology and the belief of the presence of a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Subsequently, Greek art in all of its forms is dedicated to honoring the gods and telling their stories.

In ancient Greece, gods were tangible figures that had shape, substance, and a well-known look. All Ancient Greeks knew what Zeus, the king of the gods, looked like, although nobody had ever seen him first hand. The same was true of all the major deities; they had a recognizable human form, complete with tokens and talismans that were often the source of their power.

The ancient Greeks could tell which god or goddess was pictured on a vase or in a sculpture just by looking at the representation. But part of the point of art is to transcend time and space, so clues, usually in the form of the specific god’s symbol, are usually painted or sculpted into every work of art.

The mythological stories told through pottery

Pottery was an integral source of art, and one that permeated life on a daily basis. Pottery was meant to be used, not merely displayed, which is why there is little remaining pottery and it is often badly damaged. Most of the pottery that survived into modern day includes drinking jugs, used for storing wine and water, as well as mixing bowls, which were used to prepare food. There are almost no remaining plates or cups because these were the pieces attracting the most wear and tear. Funeral urns and wine jugs that were presented as trophies are the exception to the daily use rule, and they are more plentifully preserved than some other pieces.

In early pottery, the designs were largely geometric and abstract. The pieces were made from clay that was left to harden, painted, and then fired in a kiln – using much the same process as is used today. Black, white, red and yellow were the most commonly available dyes, and these are the colors that will be seen most frequently. In later periods, stories of Greek history, mythology and religion were told on pieces of pottery. This was a way to reinforce their belief system and honor previous periods of history.

Greek sculptures of historical importance

Sculpture was another popular form of art in ancient Greece. Sculptures were usually made of stone (marble or limestone) or bronze. Bronze was a highly prized and expensive material, and thus, generally only families of extreme wealth could commission a statue or sculpture of bronze. Ancient Grecian sculpture carries on the tradition of other forms of art—telling stories of the gods, Greek history, and honoring the gods.

Most of the art in ancient Greece was functional and decorative, not only aesthetically pleasing. Greek art was used to remind people of their beliefs, what was important in life, and above all, to honor the gods to whom they owed so much.

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From the rooftops I could see quite far, and yet I remained inconspicuous to the average person. Children played their games below, and their loving mothers carefully watched over them. It must be said that within Sparta there is a feeling of security and peace, and were I a citizen of this city-state I’d probably feel the same way, for everywhere one turns there is a muscle-laden bronzed man, clad in light armor and arms. From above I could see everything.

I had been born and bred to be quiet. I moved unseen, unheard, and my strike was swift and deadly. Some may label me as an assassin, but to be an assassin you must kill without moral or ethical attachment. I do not kill in that way. I kill with emotion, with reason, with attachment. I kill because I love those that I slay.

It is a tortuous gift, one such as a mine. Each time I kill I am overcome with a wave of emotions- love, anger, hatred, torment, sadness, and eventually, depression. Each is a stage that I must endure for the greater good. Each is a stage that I must endure for my own sanity.

The guards below had finally turned their backs. I could see hordes of them gravitating towards the city center- something must be going on right now. The soldiers pressed on calmly, as if this was a routine. Surely this did happen often, as all of the guards away from their posts at once could present quite an opportunity for more enterprising types.

A glance towards the city gates to the west confirmed my suspicions: the guards remained at the gates, steadfast in their resolve to ensure that the city remains enclosed and secure. Well, perhaps secure enough.

I placed my hands on the edge of the roof and swung my body over the edge. Now hanging, I placed my feet against the wall and thrust, while at the same time forcing my body to wrap around itself. As I fell I reached out and took hold of a lower ledge, bringing my free-fall to an abrupt halt. Now hidden between two buildings, I let go and fell the remaining few feet to the ground below.

Not a bad way to decent from a building.

People walked past the alleyway that I resided in without noticing me inside. No, what was there to notice about a man dressed as everyone else? Even so, from within the shadows I could render myself almost invisible.

I waited for the right moment to join the Spartan crowd. I could not help but watch the crowd as it passed by- mothers guiding their children, husbands embracing their wives. I continued to watch the crowd until a large group, possibly a large family or group of close friends, came marching past. I joined them unnoticed, and made my way with the crowd until I came to the clearing I was observing from the rooftops a few minutes prior.

The same mothers were there, along with their children, still idly playing and enjoying their lives. There was one child I had been observing in particular – a boy that was 5 or 6 years old at the most – and I had decided that today he would be the one I would choose.

I reached into my pocket and retrieved two circular orbs that had been given to me by a friend of mine in the orient. The orbs themselves were nothing spectacular, but rather it was what they could do that was most interesting. Apparently these orbs, when thrown upon the ground, exploded into a huge cloud of smoke. Enough smoke, apparently, to conceal a man crafty enough to use the distraction to his advantage.

And so I would. I thrust the orbs to the ground, ensuring that each hit approximately ten feet from each other, and rushed into the resulting haze. I grabbed the child and retreated into the crowd, which was now panicking due to the confusion. It was not for a few moments that I heard the cries from the mother. Her calls for her child echoed predominantly throughout the street, and had I not already scaled the walls of the building I was occupying earlier I would surely have been noticed and apprehended.

I set the child down, my left hand covering his mouth. He was afraid- his blue eyes pierced me, as if they knew what was happening next. My right hand reached towards the sheath behind my back and retried my freshly sharpened dagger. He began to breathe heavily, almost hysterically. Tears streamed down the side of his face. He knew he was going to die.

“Fear not child,” I whispered to him, “for in your death you shall find salvation. The Olympians do not waste the life of a boy. You shall find peace in the events of today.”

As I drew my dagger I entered my period of hyper-awareness: the mother still cried for her child, the crowd still screamed and scurried about like a bunch of chickens with their heads chopped off, and the boy was still crying. His years touched my hand, and I could feel the swell in my eyes.

I thrust down. The deed was done. The mother still cried, and the crowd still moved, only now the boy did not fret. His torment had ended, while the torment that would soon plague this city was just beginning.