Achilles has been described as the most handsome warrior to fight in the Trojan War. He established an impressive war record and captured 23 Trojan villages. He was seen as a great hero and is the main character in the Iliad, whose central theme is the wrath of Achilles, in deference to his explosive and murderous temper.

Many stories surround the sexual exploits of Achilles, with both men and women. There was great speculation regarding Achilles’ close relationship with Patroclus, who was killed during the Trojan War. Achilles pursued a prince of Troy, Troilus, who hid from Achilles in Apollo’s temple. Achilles desecrated the temple by beheading the boy inside, earning him the rage of Apollo. It is said that Apollo guided the arrow that struck Achilles in the heel, the only mortal spot on Achilles’ body, which has led to the reference of the “Achilles heel” as a weakness.

Mythology

Achilles was born in Farsala to the king of the Myrmidons, Peleus, and his immortal wife Thetis, a sea nymph. He was sent to Mt. Pelion where he was raised by a centaur named Chiron.

An ancient story by Statius claims that Thetis dipped Achilles in the river Styx, trying to make him immortal. The story goes on to tell that she forgot to dip the heel she had been holding him by, making it the only spot on his body vulnerable to attack. Another version of the story relates that Thetis covered the child in the godly ambrosia and placed him in the fire to let the flames destroy his mortal aspects, but was interrupted by Peleus, who was enraged and removed him from the fire, leaving a mortal spot on Achilles’ heel.

While Achilles was young, Calchas foretold that Troy could not be defeated without the help of Achilles. Thetis, however, knew her son was doomed to an early death if he fought in the war, so she hid him in the court of Lycomedes, disguised as a girl. His son Pyrrhus was born of Achilles’ affair with Lycomedes’ daughter, Deidameia. Achilles identity was eventually discovered, and he went to Troy and led many of the Myrmidons in battle.

In one of the Trojan towns captured by Achilles, Lyrnessus, he took the woman Briseis as a war prize. The leader of the Greek forces, Agamemnon, took the lady Chryseis as his war prize, but an oracle of Apollo forced him to surrender his prize. He took Briseis away from Achilles to console himself, enraging Achilles and causing him to withdraw from the war. This confrontation with Agamemnon begins Homer’s epic poem iliad.

With Achilles withdrawl from battle, the Trojans began gaining ground against the Greek forces. The Greek commander was blamed for making Achilles mad, which in turn was causing the Achaeans to lose ground to the Trojans. He sent Odysseus to try to bribe Achilles with gifts in exchange for his return to battle. Achilles refused and urged them to return to Greece. The Greeks offered their most ferocious warrior many gifts to try to encourage him to return to battle.

Achilles finally relented and agreed to help the Achaean forces, but still refused to personally appear in battle. He prayed to his mother that the Trojans could be defeated, although by this time the Greeks were teetering on the edge of destruction at the hands of the Trojans. Achilles gave Patroclus his armor and allowed the boy to lead the Greek troops in battle against the Trojan forces. Patroclus and his men were able to push back the Trojans, but the Trojan leader Hector mistook Patroclus for Achilles and killed him, stripping him of the armor.

In a rage, Achilles returned to battle and became a killing machine, seeking to exact revenge upon Hector. He was bolstered by a magnificent new set of armor his mother had obtained from Hephaestus.

At one point Zeus had to have Achilles restrained to prevent him from taking on the city of Troy singlehandedly. Achilles finally found Hector, who had to be persuaded by Athena to fight Achilles rather than run from him. Achilles killed Hector, then mutilated the body by dragging it behind a chariot for nine days. The Iliad closes with Hector’s funeral, which takes place shortly before the fall of Troy.

Despite his prowess as a warrior, Achilles’ affinity for young boys is perhaps what finally led to his demise. He had made many advances toward a Trojan boy named Troilus, and became aggressive in his pursuits of the boy. Troilus ran to the temple of Apollo and hid inside, trying to escape Achilles’ advances. Achilles was furious about being spurned by Troilus and beheaded him inside the temple.

Troilus was killed just prior to his twentieth birthday, and myths told that should Troilus have lived past his twentieth birthday, Troy would have been invincible. Apollo was enraged by the desecration of his temple, and swore revenge against Achilles.

Achilles was finally killed by an arrow, which struck his heel, the only vulnerable place on Achilles’ body. Paris was the one who loosed the arrow, but many believe it was guided to its fatal mark by Apollo.

Following his death, Odysseus and Ajax competed for Achilles’ armor by telling why they were the bravest warriors, and therefore the most deserving of it. When Odysseus won the competition, Ajax lost his mind and went mad. After killing many sheep, believing them to be Greek soldiers, he killed himself.

Achilles in Pop Culture

• Achilles has been portrayed on stage in the production of Paris, a musical based upon the Trojan War, and in William Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida.

• Many actors have portrayed Achilles in film, most recently by Brad Pitt in Troy. Joe Montana played Achilles in the made-for-television movie Helen of Troy.

• Other films featuring Achilles include: 1955’s Ulysses, Helen of Troy starring Stanley Baker, Something About Zeus, and Fury of Achilles released in 1962.

• The character Archie in the animated series Class of the Titans is a descendent of Achilles who has inherited the hero’s weak heel.

• In 1976, Led Zeppelin sang Achilles Last Stand.

• Other songs about Achilles include: Achilles Revenge by Warlord, Jag Panzer’s Achilles, Sean O’Loughlin’s piece Achilles’ Wrath, and Manowar’s Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy in Eight Parts.

• Reference is made to Achilles in many other modern songs, including: Ghost by the Indigo Girls, Placebo’s Special K, and Bob Dylan’s Temporary Like Achilles.

• A cruiser with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II was named the HMNZS Achilles.

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Theseus was a founder of many of the original Greek myths, as were Heracles and Perseus, and was the King of Athens. He was known as the unifying king, and is believed responsible for creating many of the traditions of Athens.

Mythology

Aethra is Perseus’mother, and his fathers were Aegeus and Poseidon. It is said that Aethra and Aegeus were married, and on her wedding night Aethra waded across the sea to Sphairia, to lay with Poseidon. This gave Theseus attributes of both mortal and god.

Upon learning of Aethra’s pregnancy, Aegeus buried his sandals and sword beneath a huge rock. He told Aethra, if she had a son who was brave enough, at the appropriate age the son should retrieve the items as evidence of his royal blood and set out for Athens.

When he came of age, Theseus was told of his lineage by his mother. He retrieved the sandals and sword and set out for Athens. Choosing the inland route, which was the more dangerous way to Athens, Theseus passed by six entrances to the underworld, each one guarded by chthonic monsters disguised as bandits and thieves. He defeated each of the monsters and made it safely to Athens.

Upon reaching Athens, Theseus chose anonymity. He was welcomed by his father, Aegeus, who was suspicious of him and did not recognize him. Aegeus’ wife Medea knew who Theseus was and worried that he would be chosen as king rather than her own son Medus. Medea asked Theseus to capture the Marathonian Bull, a symbol of power on Crete. Theseus was successful, and upon his return to Athens, Medea gave him a glass of poisonous wine. Aegeus recognized the sandals and sword just in time to knock the glass from Theseus’ hand. The two men became close, and Medea was sent into exile.

Following an unsuccessful battle with Crete, King Minos demanded that seven Athenian boys and seven girls would be sent to Crete every nine years, for the Minotaur to devour. Theseus volunteered to kill the Minotaur, and sailed for Crete disguised as one of the children. He left flying a black sail on his ship, and told his father he would return with a white sail if he was successful.

The daughter of King Minos, Ariadne, was in love at first sight with Theseus. Subsequently, she presented him with a ball of string to use, which would help him navigate out of the Labyrinth - where the Minotaur lived. The one condition was that Theseus take Ariadne with him when he returned to Athens. Theseus defeated the Minotaur and left Crete with Ariadne, but abandoned her on the island of Naxos. She cursed him and prayed to the gods that he would forget to change his sail. Theseus sailed into Athens flying the black sail on his ship. Upon seeing it, Aegeus leaped into the sea and killed himself.

Theseus became friends with Zeus’ son Pirithous, and they made an agreement with each other that they would marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus and Pirithous kidnapped Zeus’ daughter Helen, and left her with Theseus’ mother Aethra until Theseus could return to marry her. Pirithous chose Persephone to be his bride, and together they descended into the underworld to kidnap her. They were welcomed by Persephone’s husband, Hades, who was not fooled by them. As the two men sat down to a feast, snakes coiled around their wrists and ankles, binding them to a bench. Heracles managed to rescue Theseus, but Pirithous was doomed to remain in the underworld for eternity. By the time Theseus returned to his mother’s house, Helen and Aethra had been taken to Sparta.

Theseus fathered a son, Acamus, with his first wife, Phaedra. Acamus was inside the horse that was presented to the Trojans as a gift. Eventually, Theseus met his doom after losing popularity in Athens. He was thrown to his death off of a cliff by Lycomedes.

Theseus in Popular Culture

• Many books tell the various adventures of Theseus, including Gene Wolfe’s The Book of the New Sun, Mary Renault’s The King Must Die, and its sequel The Bull From the Sea.

• Theseus figures prominently in the William Shakespeare works A Midsummer Night’s Dream and The Two Noble Kinsmen.

• Alternative views of Theseus are offered in The Cretan Chronicles and in the short story La Casa de Asterion.

• Last of the Amazons by Steven Pressfield is a fictional tale of Theseus’ marriage to Antiope.

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The victories of Perseus against mythic monsters provided the foundation for the stories of the Twelve Olympians. This founder of Mycenae and the Perseid dynasty was most famous for being the slayer of Medusa.

Mythology

Perseus was the son of Zeus and Danae. Danae’s father, King Acrisius of Argos, had locked Danae in an underground bronze vault after learning from the Oracle at Delphi that Danae’s son would one day kill the King. Zeus came to Danae’s prison disguised as a shower of gold and impregnated her, which resulted in the birth of Perseus.

Unwilling to draw down the wrath of Zeus by killing his offspring, King Acrisius placed Perseus and Danae into a wooden box and set them out to sea. They landed on the shores of Seriphos, and a fisherman named Dictus raised Perseus there. The king of the island, Polydectes, was Dictus’ brother.

Polydectes fell in love with Danae, but was unable to pursue her due to Perseus’ protectiveness for her. In an attempt to send Perseus away in shame, Polydectes held a banquet requiring each guest to bring a horse as a gift. Perseus did not have a horse, and so promised an alternative gift. Polydectes sent Perseus to bring back the head of the Gorgon Medusa, whose gaze could turn people into stone.

Perseus knew he would need help to slay Medusa, and eventually received a bronze shield from Athena, winged sandals, a purse, and a sword from Hermes, and a cap from Hades that would make the wearer invisible. Perseus was able to persuade the Graeae, sisters to the Gorgons, to help him in his quest by stealing the one eye and one tooth they shared among themselves.

Wearing the invisibility cap, Perseus was able to sneak up on Medusa and behead her.

On his journey home, Perseus visited Ethiopia, which was ruled by King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia. The queen had earned the wrath of Poseidon, who unleashed a sea monster named Ceto upon their lands. The Oracle of Ammon predicted there would be no relief from the vicious monster until the King’s daughter Andromeda was exposed to it. Andromeda was bound to a rock on the shore and left to die.

Perseus, using the winged sandals, rescued Andromeda and married her. At the wedding, an argument ensued between Perseus and Phineus, to whom Andromeda had already been promised. Perseus used Medusa’s head to turn Phineus to stone. Andromeda traveled to Argos with her husband where they had a son, Perses.

Meanwhile, Perseus’ mother had been forced to hide from the onslaught of Polydectes. Perseus returned to Seriphos and used Medusa’s head to kill Polydectes. He then made Dictys King of Seriphos.
The gifts Perseus borrowed were returned to their owners, and Medusa’s head was given to Athena to adorn her shield. The prophecy of the Oracle was fulfilled when Perseus was demonstrating the discus and Acrisius walked into the path of one, and was accidentally killed.

Perseus in Popular Culture

• References were made to Perseus as the first whaleman in the novel Moby Dick.

• Perseus’ legend was the basis for Clash of the Titans, which premiered in 1981.

• In the video game The God of War II, actor Harry Hamlin gives Perseus his voice.

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Odysseus was a legendary Greek King of Ithaca, an island in the Ionian sea along Greece’s northwestern coast. He figured prominently in Homer’s epic poem Iliad, and was the hero of Homer’s The Odyssey. He was beloved by the Greeks for his cunning and resourcefulness, and became one of the most trusted advisors during the Trojan War. He is perhaps best know, though, for his ten-year journey home to Ithaca following the end of the Trojan War.

Mythology

Odysseus was the son of an Argonaut, Laertes, and his wife Anticleia.

Prior to the Trojan War, and Oracular prophecy told Odysseus that he would be delayed greatly in getting home if he chose to participate in the Trojan War. After the war’s inception, Odysseus tried to feign madness in order to escape going. In an attempt to convince others he was crazy, he harnessed an ox and an donkey to his plow and covered his fields in salt. Palamedes saw through Odysseus’ charade and placed Odysseus’ son in front of the plow. Odysseus veered the plow away from his son and was thus sent off to war. He never forgave Palamedes, and eventually had Palamedes framed as a traitor. As a result, the Greeks stoned Palamedes to death.

Odysseus was a tireless champion of the Greek cause throughout the Trojan War, and was instrumental in convincing Achilles to return to the battle. After Achilles was killed in battle, Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax recovered Achilles’ body and battle armor in the midst of heavy fighting. Achilles’ arms were offered to the bravest Greek, and only Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax dared lay claim to them. After much dispute, Odysseus was rewarded with Achilles’ arms. Humiliated, Ajax committed suicide.

Many other important advances in the war were the work of Odysseus, including persuading Achilles’ son Pyrrhus to fight, and retrieving the poisonous arrows of Heracles. He and Diomedes conspired to steal the Palladium from the city of Troy after learning from Helenus the prophet, who Odysseus had captured, that Troy could not be defeated unless the Palladium had been captured.

As a punishment for his crimes during the Trojan War, Odysseus was cursed to endure a belaboring ten years before he could return home to Ithaca. After departing Troy, Odysseus’ ships stopped in Ismara, where they raided and looted the city. Even though Odysseus urged his men to return to the ships quickly, they did not listen and fell asleep on the beach. They were attacked the next morning by kinsmen of the Ismara, the Ciconians. Odysseus’ men made a hasty retreat but left many men behind.

Odysseus and his men stopped in the land of the Lotus-Eaters, where some of his men went ashore to eat and drink with the inhabitants. The men ceased to care about even going home, and had to be dragged back to the ship against their will by Odysseus.

A scouting party in the territory of the Cyclops revealed a large cave filled with livestock. Odysseus and his men proceed to eat the sheep and cattle, unaware the Cyclops shared the cave. The Cyclops trapped Odysseus and his men inside the cave by blocking the door with a giant boulder. Odysseus gave the Cyclops a bowl of strong wine and introduced himself as “Nobody.” The Cyclops became very sleepy, allowing Odysseus and his men to fashion a spear out of a tree, which they used to blind the Cyclops. In the morning, the men escaped by tying themselves to the bottoms of sheep, which the Cyclops let out of the cave to graze. Only upon sailing away did Odysseus reveal his true identity to the Cyclops, which lay a curse that he should only return home alone and without his ship.

Among Odysseus’ many other adventures on his journey home was his stop in Circe. Her magical potion had put his crew members to sleep, allowing Circe to turn them into pigs. Odysseus had been warned by Hermes, though, about her potions, and had advised Odysseus to take the herb moly to counteract its effects. When Circe could not put Odysseus to sleep, she fell in love with him. Odysseus stayed with her for a year, and they had a son together, named Telegonus. Odysseus also managed to convince Circe to return his men.

After surviving the underworld, the Sirens, and having his ships and his men destroyed by Zeus after they ate Helios’ sacred cattle, Odysseus finally arrived back in Ithaca. He found that his wife Penelope had been faithful to him during his entire absence, and had managed to ward off the suitors who demanded she remarry. While dressed like a beggar, Penelope concocted a contest to win her hand in marriage that only Odysseus could win. After he had won, Athena lifted Odysseus’ disguise and he was reunited with his wife. Odysseus, his son Telemachus, and Eumaeus, together killed the would-be suitors and those who had supported them. Eventually the families of the slain suitors and Odysseus made peace with each other.

Odysseus in Popular Culture

• Odysseus is paralleled in novels bearing the name Ulysses, written by both Lord Tennyson and James Joyce.

• The song Tale of Brave Ulysses by Cream alludes to Odysseus’ experience with the Sirens.

• The hero in the book The Weird Wanderer travels back in time and discovers he is the reincarnation of Odysseus.

• A Japanese-French anime series, Ulysses 31, is a futuristic version of the adventures of Odysseus.

• The Odyssey was recreated by The Simpsons, with Homer Simpson playing the part of Odysseus.

• Many songs make reference to Odysseus, including The Police’s song King of Pain, Suzanne Vega’s song Calypso, Symphony X’s The Odyssey, and composer Cecil Armstrong Gibbs’ second symphony.

• Actors such as Armand Assante and Sean Bean have portrayed Odysseus in the movies The Odyssey and Troy, respectively.

• The video game Age of Mythology features Odysseus as a playable character.

• George Clooney plays Ulysses Everett McGill in O Brother Where Art Thou?, which was based on the Odyssey.

• The character Odie on the cartoon Class of Titans is a descendant of Odysseus, and Desmond Hume’s character on Lost is believed to be partially based on Odysseus.

• A Reenactment of Odysseus’ journey across the Aegean Sea is documented in the German film Unterwegs met Odysseus.

• Lindsay Clarke tells of Odysseus and his journeys in The War at Troy and in The Return from Troy.

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Heracles is described as the greatest of Greek heroes, the embodiment of great strength and champion fighter against the chthonic monsters. He was the patron god and protector of palaestrae and gymnasia, a responsibility he shared with Hermes. His symbols were the club and the lion skin.

In addition to enormous strength, Heracles was known for his courage, sexual liaisons with both men and women, and creativity. As ferocious as Heracles was, he would still play with children and relax by engaging in games. He was deeply emotional and passionate, and could exact horrible vengeance just as easily as he could display friendship.

Heracles was known in Rome, and later in the western world, as Hercules. Many of the Roman emperors would identify themselves with Hercules.

Mythology

Heracles is more of a demi-god, the son of Zeus and the mortal woman Alcmene. He was originally names Alcides, but took the name Heracles, “glory of Hera,” to appease Zeus’ jealous and scorned wife.

On the night Heracles was born, Alcides also gave birth to the child of her husband Amphitryon. Knowing Alcedes had been pregnant with twins, Hera made Zeus promise that the child born to the House of Perseus would be named as High King. Zeus agreed.

Hera bade the goddess of childbirth, Ilithyia, to tie her clothing in knots and sit cross-legged, preventing Heracles from being born. Hera then caused the premature delivery of Eurystheus, Heracles’ brother, which allowed him to be named High King instead of Heracles.

Upon the delivery of Eurystheus, Alcedes’ servant lied to Ilithyia and told her the Heracles had already been born. Ilithyia untied the knots in her clothing and stood up, allowing Heracles to be born.

Not to be discouraged, Hera later sent two serpents to Heracles’ crib to kill him. Imagine the surprise of his nurse when she found him in the crib, playing with the two throttled snakes as if they were toys.

While Heracles was still young he killed his music teacher with a lyre. His foster father Amphitryon sent him to tend cattle, where the nymphs virtue and pleasure came to visit him. They offered him a choice between an easy life or a difficult one that would earn him much glory. Heracles chose the difficult path and was challenged by King Thespius to kill the Lion of Cithaeron. The reward for Heracles’ success would be the opportunity to impregnate all 50 of the King’s daughters. Heracles accomplished the task in one night.
Heracles met and married Megara in Thebes, and produced children with her. Hera, still offended by Heracles’ existence, drove him into a frenzy where he killed his entire family. When he regained his senses he fled, consulting the Oracle of Delphi. Unfortunately the Oracle, which was controlled by Hera, sentenced him to serve King Eurystheus and perform any task he requested for a period of 12 years. These tasks became known as the Labors of Heracles.

Heracles was originally given ten tasks, but King Eurystheus did not believe he had performed two of the tasks entirely on his own, so he added two more tasks to the list. Those tasks were:

1. To kill the Nemean Lion, which he strangled.
2. To destroy the Lernaean Hydra, which had nine heads, one of which was immortal. Heracles burned eight of the heads and buried the immortal head under a rock.
3. To capture the Ceryneian Hind, which he trapped after chasing it for months.
4. To capture the Erymanthian Boar, which Heracles killed.
5. To clean the Augean Stables, which Heracles accomplished by diverting a nearby river through the stables.
6. To kill the carnivorous Stymphalian Birds.
7. To capture the wild Cretan Bull.
8. To collect the Mares of Diomedes, which were man-eaters.
9. To steal the girdle of the Amazon Queen, Hippolyte.
10. To round up the Cattle of Geryon.
11. To collect the Apples of Hesperides. He tricked Atlas into helping him.
12. To capture the three-headed dog of Hades, Cerebus, and bring him out of the underworld.

After his servitude to King Eurystheus had ended, Heracles joined the Argonauts, with whom he fought the Gigantes and defeated Troy.Heracles fell in love with Iole, daughter of King Eurytus of Oechalia, who had promised his daughter’s hand in marriage to anyone who could beat his sons in archery. When Heracles won, King Eurytus revoked his promise. Heracles was shunned by everyone in the King’s family except the King’s son Iphitus. Heracles kidnapped Iole after killing the King and his family, save for Iphitus. Iphitus was Heracles’ best friend until Hera interfered and caused him to leap to his death over the city walls.

As atonement for Iphitus’ death, Heracles began three years of service to Queen Omphale of Lydia. After forcing Heracles to degrade himself by dressing and working as a woman, she freed him and married him.

Heracles was involved in many more daring adventures that demonstrated his great courage, including the rescue of Prometheus, before being killed by Deianeira. Following his death he was resurrected to Mount Olympus by Zeus and given immortality.

Heracles in Popular Culture

• Kevin Sorbo became famous playing Hercules in the television series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, Young Hercules, and in guest appearances on Xena: Warrior Princess. A video game, Hercules: The Legendary Journeys, was based upon the television series.

• A 1963 animated series produced by Adventure Cartoon Productions in cooperation with Trans-Lux Television was called The Mighty Hercules.

• Hallmark Entertainment aired the mini-series Hercules.

• Hercules: The Animated Series was a spin-off of the 1997 Disney movie. Disney entertainment produced several games featuring Hercules including Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II.

• The Playstation 2 games Heracles: Battle with the Gods and God of War II feature Heracles.

• Several computer games feature Heracles including The Return of Hercules and the video novel game Fate/Stay Night.

• Steve Reeves and Reg Park starred in a series of Hercules movies in the 1950’s and 1960’s.

• In 1961, the Three Stooges spoofed Hercules in The Three Stooges Meet Hercules.

• Future Terminator Arnold Schwarzenegger played Hercules in a 1970 movie, Hercules in New York.

• Walt Disney produced an animated Hercules movie in 1997.

Marvel, DC, and Dell comics have all featured Hercules in their comic books.

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I stood at the doorway of my neighbors home. In my hands I held a short-sword, a small but sturdy weapon, and upon the sword were the stains of those I had slain in the past. Those that I had slain in battle, in conflict, in justice. Today, my sword was stained with the blood of innocence, of ambiguity and of indecision.

Today, my sword was stained with the blood of my neighbor. Just moments ago I had taken this blade, of which I had so diligently sharpened just earlier this morning, and thrust it into his still-beating heart. Before he could scream I removed the blade and swiped at this neck, cutting his neck so severely that no words escaped his lips as they moved.

And I had done it all in rage.

I had done it all in triumph.

I had made a mistake.

I took his body and dragged it from the kitchen to the bedroom, taking the care to place him gently in his bed. Beside his body I placed my sword and my knife, now crimson in color. With those weapons I placed my dignity, my pride, my deservingness to live. I knew already what was to become of me, and while moments ago I had readily accepted my fate, I now questioned its necessity.

I closed his bedroom door and snuck out behind his house, taking great lengths to ensure that I was not spotted by anyone. Our village, Ramados, is small compared to the great cities of Athens, Troy, or Sparta, but it has always carried a certain importance that seemed to linger in the air. It was ever-present, and every man, woman, and child that inhabited the village carried that feeling with a certain amount of respect and pride.

My neighbors house was a few minutes away from the banks of the town river, and luckily for me the path to the banks was shrouded by olive trees and incredibly tall grass. Moving within the grass I soon found myself at the banks of the river, unnoticed. I was still covered in his blood- I could feel it eating away at my skin, as if to remind me of the horrible thing that I had done.

Yes, it was horrible. Every moment of it was pure agony, for both myself and for him. Every thrust of my blade, every sound that he made- it all reverberated within my mind, as if it were a never-ending loop. Even as I frantically washed myself in the river I could see myself forcing my silver into his golden flesh. I could see my blade piercing his skin. I could see my blade ending his life.

I felt weak suddenly, and without warning I found my knees collapsing. I crashed into the water, and as the river was only a few inches deep at the particular spot that I was washing myself at, my head hit the riverbed. It was at that moment that I lost consciousness.

I awoke some time later. My head throbbed, and fresh blood ran down the right side of my body. My blood, coming from the now-open wound on the side of my head. Funny- in the water I can not tell the difference between my blood and the blood of my neighbor. The same, sickening crimson wafted down the stream.

I ripped off my clothes and desperately began to scrub them. The blood, my blood, his blood, it would not wash out. It remained ever-present in my clothes, seemingly refusing to dilute or fade. There it remained, as rich and colourful as the moment that it had gushed from his neck. It was terrifying, yet strangely wonderful at the same time. Despite my actions I could not help but find this fact sickeningly beautiful.

I was marked. Others would know, and I would never forget.

I heard a rustle in the grass behind me. It was faint at first, as if someone was making light footsteps, but then it grew louder. Whoever was there did not care if I saw them or not. I turned to face the sound, and to my surprise I found not a man but instead a wolf. It’s fur was a brilliant white, absent of any stains or impurities.

I turned and resumed my washing. If this creature wanted my life it would have taken it already. Not only that, but absent of a weapon, I’d be powerless to stop it anyway.

“Do not turn your back to me.” The sound was ominous. In the pit of my stomach I felt a sudden stabbing pain, and suddenly I began to realize what was happening.

I turned around again, and before me stood a powerfully built man. In his right hand he held a spear- it’s head was made of a golden metal, and I could see (despite being nearly twenty feet away) that it had bee recently sharpened.

As recent as this morning, perhaps.

“Who are you,” I asked, already knowing full well that before me stood Ares, the good of bloodlust.

“You know who I am. What you do not know is why I am here.” Ares pointed his spear at me, its bronzed tip gleaning in the sunlight. “I watched you slay a man today.”

“I know,” I hung my head, and at the same my mind began to race. What was going to happen now?

“I watched you massacre a man today.” Ares placed his spear back at his side and, folding his arms, he looked at me square in the eyes. “I watched you murder one man, and completely destroy another.”

Destroy another? What did he mean? I began to extrapolate the possibilities, but I was interrupted before I could truly begin.

“You have descended into madness. You have cast away your civility. You are no Greek. No, you are something else entirely.”

Before I could respond I felt an intense pressure in my stomach, followed by an unbearable heat and then insurmountable pain.

I let out a savage cry.

“Feel your pain, madman! Feel what you have wrought upon another!” Ares remain resolute. After a moment, he removed the spear from my stomach and thrust it into my still-beating heart.

I let out another cry, though this one was muted by the blood that was entering my lounges.

“Do you see now, madman, what pain that you have caused another?” Ares bellowed, suddenly appearing much taller than I had remembered him being just moments before.

I collapsed to the river bed, nodding my head. I see now what I have caused another man. I see now what I’ve done.

In death, I caused him pain. In my death, Ares granted me freedom.

Yes, I truly am mad.

With my last ounce of strength I forced a smile, and with my last breath I thanked the God of War for his grace.

The expression on his face told me that I had not grasped his point.

And then I died.

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The Polis refers not necessarily to a single city, but rather to a form of governance for Greek communities, known as city-states. Following the Mycenean Age, the Greeks lived in small tribal or nomadic groups. This period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, lasted from around 1200 BC until between 800 and 700 BC. As the Greek Dark Ages came to an end, the tribes began forming communities. Common defensive structures and fortifications sprang up, marketplaces formed, and trade began between communities.

Political units were formed for each individual community, and each were independent states. At that time, Greece was not a unified nation, but rather an association of poli, which is plural for polis.

Commonalities of a polis included an acropolis, an agora, or marketplace, a gymnasium, and several temples. Most of the citizens would live in the surrounding countryside, and each polis paid tribute to certain patron gods for protection.

One of the largest and most famous poli was Sparta, which encompassed 3000 square miles of Greek countryside, although the polis was considered more of a political association than a geographical location. Other poli included Thebes, Lacadaemonia, and Athens. Alexander the Great is said to have founded at least seventy cities, which all became places of great influence.

Because of their relatively small size, the poli were known for experimenting with political structure. Governance could include tyranny, timocracy – rule by the wealthy, oligarchy, or democracy.

Most poli began as monarchies, ruled by a king of hereditary citizenship. Many of the kings were overthrown, though by the eighth century BC, and other forms of government began to appear.

The most common was the oligarchy, where the wealthy or noble citizens would rule. During the eighth century, the structure of the oligarchy transformed to allow the rotation of citizens from a designated class. The oligarchy had the ability to rule absolutely and had the same powers as the king, but many poli blended the oligarchy with other political structures.

In Sparta, the oligarchy shared its rule with two kings, a democratic assembly, and a council. Athens had an oligarchy of nobles, accompanied by a democratic assembly that was given great powers.

By the sixth century, many of the oligarchies had been replaced by democracies, which held little to no resemblance to our modern democracies. Greek democracies were ruled by the free, male citizens of the polis. Women, slaves, and foreigners were not allowed to participate in any democratic functions. There were essentially three classes of residents in the poli: those with political rights, those without political rights, and non-citizens.

In addition to the birth of many political structures, the poli were also responsible for developing the concept of naturalization. At one time, a person could only be a citizen of a polis if they could prove their descent from parents who were citizens. Some poli only required one parent be a citizen, while others required that both were. Occasionally, though, a polis would allow citizenship to someone who could not prove their lineage, and so the concept of naturalization came into being during the Hellenic Age.

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The city of Corinth was originally founded around 6000 BC, during the Neolithic Age, by Corinthos, a descendant of the sun god Helios. Other myths claim the city was founded by Ephyra, daughter of the Titan Oceanus. The city is known both as Corinth and as Ephyra.

During the Mycenaean period Corinth may have also been the site of a Bronze Age palace-city, and was eventually settled by the Dorians before the end of the period.

In the Classical Era, Corinth equaled Athens and Thebes in terms of wealth, fed by its steady trade including the export of black-figure pottery.

Corinth was ruled during the 7th century BC by Cypelus and his son Periander, who was considered one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. Both men were tyrants, and under their rule citizens of Corinth were sent out to colonize new communities. They were responsible for founding such places as Apollonia, Potidaea, m modern-day Corfu, and modern-day Albania. Corinth was one of nine Greek cities to sponsor colonization of Naukratis in Egypt.

Periander was the first to mint Corinthian coins, and was the first to attempt to create passage for ships across the Isthmus between the Corinthian Gulf and the Saronic Gulf. Unable to cut through, he created a stone ramp, called a Diolkos, instead. The time spent under Periander’s rule is considered to be the Golden Age of Corinth.

Corinth flourished and became a center for wealth and luxury. Architecture of the time was the most intricate in Corinth, reflecting the prosperity of the people. Living standards were very high, and not everyone was able to afford to live there.

Two major ports, one in each gulf, fed the wealth of trade that flowed through Corinth. In addition to trade, the port cities also housed Corinth’s fleet of war ships. Corinth provided 40 of its ships to fight in the Persian Wars, in the Battle of Salamis and the Battle of Plataea. Afterwards, Corinth became an ally of Sparta and frequently was at odds with Athens, which eventually led to the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC.

Following the conclusion of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth turned on Sparta and declared war on it. The constant warring of the Peloponnesian city-states allowed the Macedonians to invade their lands, forming the Corinthian League under Philip II of Macedon.

In 146 BC Corinth was destroyed by Lucius Mummius, who killed the men, sold the women and children as slaves, and torched the entire city. Corinth was rebuilt by Julius Caesar in 44 BC and settled by Romans. Despite the city’s destruction by Mummius, it was once again known under Roman rule for its outrageous luxury and rampant immoral behavior.

The city was plundered many more times, with its citizens sold off as slaves. Such events occurred during Alaraic’s invasion of Greece in 395-396, and again in 1147 by the Sicilian Normans under Roger of Sicily.

Corinth was devastated many times and had to be completely rebuilt. Earthquakes ravaged Corinth in 375 and in 551. It was destroyed by earthquakes again in 1858.

Corinth had many temples, the most famous of which was dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite, which employed over one thousand prostitutes. Corinth was also the site of the Temple of Apollo.

Paul the Apostle was a resident of Corinth for a short time in AD 51 or 52, and returned again for a short visit in AD 58. During his stay he wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians and the Second Epistle to the Corinthians.

Turkish forces completely destroyed Corinth during the Greek War of Independence. The city was finally liberated after the Treaty of London in 1832 and was considered for the site of the capital of the new Kingdom of Greece, but Athens prevailed.

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The Titans were a race of giant, powerful gods who ruled the earth before being overthrown by Zeus and the Olympians. The twelve original Titans were the descendants of Gaia, the Earth goddess, and Uranus, the sky god. Uranus was the son of Gaia but also married her, and together they created the first generation of Titans.

When Gaia was pregnant with her twelve children, Uranus trapped them within her womb, causing Gaia much discomfort. Cronus, the youngest, turned upon his father and castrated him, freeing Gaia to give birth to the children. With this act Cronus also established himself as the Titan king.

First Generation Titans

Cronus – The youngest of the Titans, this king earned his power by castrating his father. He married Rhea, who bore him children. However, fearing his safety, Cronus ate each one of his children as they were born.

Rhea was unhappy about the loss of her children, so she tricked Cronus into eating a rock when Zeus was born. Zeus was sent to Crete to be raised, but would eventually return to revolt against the Titans. Gaia helped Zeus gave Cronus a potion that caused him to regurgitate all of Zeus’ siblings. Cronus was viewed as destructive, and was the god of time.

Aided by the Cyclops and the Hecatonchires, Zeus won a ten year war against the older gods and banished many of them to Tartarus. Zeus became the king of Mount Olympus. Zeus eventually released them from Tartarus and made Cronus king of the Elysian Islands.

Rhea - Rhea was the goddess of motherhood and female fertility. She represented the flow of time and was the queen of heaven. Rhea became the wife of Cronus.

One myth says she helped Zeus by making a feast for Cronus, during which he became drunk on fermented honey. Cronus fell into a deep sleep and was taken to the cave of Nyx, or night, where he has slept ever since.

Iapetus - Iapetus is the only Titan mentioned in the Iliad. He married Clymene and was the father of Promethius, Epimetheus, Menoetius, and Atlas, who were ancestors of humankind.

Themis - The Titan of justice and order, she oversaw proper relationships between men and women. She built the Oracle at Delphi and was at Delos when Apollo was born. Themis coupled with Zeus and was the mother of the Seasons and the Three Fates.

Oceanus - Oceanus is the personification of the ocean. He married Tethys and together they produced all of the chief waters of the world. Their children included three thousand ocean nymphs. He is depicted as the river of water that encircles the world, never ending.

At the wedding of Thetis and Peleus he arrived with a fish and a serpent, representing bounty and prophecy.

Tethys – Tethys is the sea goddess who became the wife of Oceanus. She was the god mother of Rhea.

Hyperion – Hyperion married Theia, and is the Titan of light. Considered an early sun god, his children were Helius – the sun, Selene – the moon, and Eos – the dawn.

Theia – Theia was the goddess of shining light and sight. She was the wife of Hyperion and had an Oracle shrine in Thessaly. She is the goddess who bestows brilliance on gold, gems, and silver.

Crius – Crius fathered Perses and was the grandfather of Hecate. He also fathered Astraios and Pallas by joining with Eurybia.

Mnemosyne – She was the personification of memory. She slept with Zeus for nine nights, creating each of the nine Muses. Her gift to kings and poets is the power of speech and their special relationship with the Muses.

Coeus – He was the father of Leto and Asteria, and was the Titan of intelligence. Through Zeus and Leto he is the grandfather of Apollo and Artemis.

Phoebe – Married to Coeus, Phoebe was the Titan of the moon and of bright intellect. She was the third goddess to have the Oracle at Delphi, which she gave to her grandson Apollo on his birthday.

Following the war with Zeus and his followers, Oceanus continued to encircle the world. Phoebe earned the name “bright and shining” and was attached by name to Apollo. Those who had not fought against the Olympians became prominent figures on Mount Olympus.

Mnemosyne, Rhea, Hyperion, Themis, and Metis all had roles within the new society of gods.

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Persephone was at the same time the queen of the underworld and the representation of the fertility of the earth’s fertility. She was the goddess of the harvest, and possessed such great beauty that everyone wanted her.

Mythology

Persephone was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. As a young girl, Persephone had been pursued by the likes of Ares, Apollo, Hermes, and Hephaestus. Demeter hid her daughter from them among the gods of Olympus, where Persephone lived undisturbed for many years.

One day, Persephone was picking flowers in a field in Enna, in the company of nymphs, Artemis, and Athena, when Hades burst through a fissure in the earth and abducted her. With Persephone’s disappearance, life came to an abrupt stop and the earth began to wither.

Zeus was eventually able to persuade Hades to return Persephone, and he sent Hermes to escort her back. Before Hades released her, he tricked Persephone into eating pomegranate seeds, which bound her to the underworld where she was forced to return for one season each year.

Once Persephone had been reunited with Demeter, the earth was joyous and began to prosper. Flowers bloomed, grass grew, and the sun shone. Every year when Persephone was forced to return to Hades, the earth grew bleak and barren, and nothing would grow until she returned once again.

While she was the queen of Hades, Persephone found the music of Orpheus so incredibly sad that she agreed to release his wife Eurydice from the underworld. The only stipulation to Persephone’s gift was that Orpheus was not to look at Eurydice’s face until they had once again reached the surface of the earth. At the end of their journey, Orpheus broke his promise and looked back at his wife to make sure she was still with him, and with that she was pulled back into Hades forever.

During another of Persephone’s visits to the underworld, Pirithous and Theseus plotted to kidnap Persephone after agreeing they would both marry daughters of Zeus. They traveled to Hades, where they were offered a feast. When they sat down to eat, snakes bound them to their chairs. Heracles was able to travel to the underworld to save Theseus, but Pirithous was forced to remain in Hades forever.

When Adonis was born to Aphrodite he had been given to Persephone to watch over. Just as Aphrodite had been enthralled with Adonis’ beauty, so had Persephone been entranced by him. When Aphrodite asked to have Adonis back, Persephone refused. A quarrel ensued, which was eventually settled by Zeus. Aphrodite and Persephone agreed that Adonis would spend four months of each year with each of the women, and four months alone to do as he wished.

Persephone is the representation of the life/death/rebirth cycle, and many believe our observance of the changing of the seasons correlates with her cycle of moving between earth and Hades, as well as the cycle of Adonis’ time spent between Persephone and Aphrodite. For these reasons she is viewed by some as a goddess who represents the cycle of life.

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